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• REDD+
• The UN REDD Program (The UN collaborative Program on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation in a Developing countries)
• Central African Forest Initiative (CAFI)
• Mitigation Strategies
• Carbon Sequestration
• Carbon Sink (Green and Blue Carbon)
• Carbon Pricing including Carbon Tax
• Geo-Engineering
• Ocean Carbondioxide Removal
• Efforts by Aviation and Shipping Sector
  • ICAO – CORSIA
  • International Maritime Organization (IMO) reaches a deal to cut emissions
• Efforts by India to Fight Climate Change
  • National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
  • Mission Life
  • Green Bonds: Mobilizing Funds
• Desertification and Land Degradation
  • United Nation Convention on Combating Desertification (UNCCD)
  • The New UNCCD 2018-30 Strategic Framework
  • World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought: 17th June
  • The Bonn Challenge
  • Great Green Wall Initiative
  • UN High Level Dialogue on Desertification, Land Degradation, and Drought
  • Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of India

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1) REDD+

• Need of REDD+
  • Deforestation and forest degradation account for 17% of carbon emissions, more than the entire global transportation sector and second only to energy sector. Therefore, conservation of forests can play a very crucial role in controlling climate change.
• Introduction to REDD+
  • REDD+ is a climate change mitigation solution developed by parties to UNFCCC. It incentivizes developing countries to keep their forest standing by offering results-based payments for actions to reduce or remove forest carbon emissions.
    • The idea is that developing nations should be able to financially benefit from the ecosystem services that their forests provide, such as carbon storage and as reservoirs of biodiversity.
  • The payment is targeted at five activities:
    • Reducing Emissions from Deforestation
    • Reducing Emissions from forest degradation.
    • Conservation of carbon stocks
    • Sustainable management of forests
    • Enhancement of Carbon stocks.
  • REDD+ goes beyond simply deforestation and forest degradation and includes the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks.
    • In 2019, Brazil became one of the first countries to receive results-based aid.
    • In 2020, Uganda has become the first African country to submit the results for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) to the UNFCCC.
      • Uganda has now become eligible for results based payments.
      • In 2020, Uganda became eligible for REDD+ payments, the first African country to do so.

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A) REDD+ IN UNFCCC

• First negotiated in UNFCCC 2005 (COP-11).
• Adopted at COP-13 in 2007 in Bail.
• In 2013, COP-19 produced at least seven decisions on REDD+, which are jointly known as the “Warsaw Framework on REDD-Plus“.
• And finally, the remaining decisions on REDD+ was completed at COP21 in 2015 and the UNFCC rulebook on REDD+ was completed. All countries were also encouraged to implement and support REDD+ in Article 5 of the Paris Agreement. This was part of the broader article that specified that all countries should take action to protect and enhance their greenhouse gas sinks and reservoirs (stores of sequestered carbon).
• UNFCCC requests All developing countries aiming to undertake REDD+ to develop the following elements:
  1. A national strategy or action plan;
  2. A national forest reference emission level and/or forest reference
  3. A national forest monitoring system for monitoring and reporting on REDD+ with if possible subnational monitoring

B) REDD AND REDD+

• REDD originally referred to “reducing emissions from deforestation in developing countries” the title of the original document on REDD. It was superseded in the negotiation by REDD+.
• REDD+ refers to “reducing emissions from deforestation, and forest degradation in developing countries, and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries“. This is the most recent elaborated terminology used by COP.

C) INDIA’S REDD+ STRATEGY (RELEASED IN AUG 2018)

• The strategy has been prepared by Indian Council for Forestry Research & Education (ICFRE), Dehradun.
• The strategy builds upon existing national circumstances which have been updated in line with India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change, Green India Mission, and India’s NDC to UNFCCC.
• Key focus
  • Cooperation and involvement of the tribals, other forest dwelling communities and the society as a whole
• Significance
  • Reiterates India’s commitment to Paris Agreement on CC
  • It will help in conservation of forests and enhance productivity of forest ecosystem.
  • REDD+ strategy will help India fulfill its NDC commitment and contribute to the livelihood of the forest dependent population.

2) THE UN REDD PROGRAM (THE UN COLLABORATIVE PROGRAM ON REDUCING EMISSIONS FROM DEFORESTATION AND DEGRADATION IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRIES)

• It is a multilateral body which partners with developing countries by assisting them to develop the capacities needed to meet the UNFCCC REDD+ requirements.
  • It does so through a country based approach that provides advisory and technical support services tailored to national circumstances and needs.
• It is a collaborative initiative of FAO, UNDP, and UNEP. It also harnesses technical expertise of other UN

3)  CENTRAL AFRICAN FOREST INITIATIVE (CAFI)

• CAFI was founded in 2015 as a collaborative agreement between six Central African Countries – the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Republic of Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon – and six financial partners: the European Union, France, Norway, Germany, South Korea and the Netherlands.
  • It is based around the REDD+ mechanism developed by the parties to the UNFCCC.

 1. MITIGATION STRATEGIES

Key issues covered – Carbon Sequestration, Carbon Sink, Carbon Credit, Carbon Offset, Carbon Tax, and Geo- Engineering.

 1) CARBON SEQUESTRATION

•  It is the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide. It is one of the methods of reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere with the aim of fighting climate change.
• There can be two major types of carbon sequestration:
  • Biological:
    • Biological Carbon Sequestration is the storage of carbon dioxide in vegetation such as grasslands, or forests, as well as in soils and oceans.
      • Plant rich landscapes like forests, grasslands etc. capture 25% of the global carbon emissions.
      • Soil can store carbon in the form of Soil Organic Carbon.
        • Soil can also store carbon as carbonates.
      • Colder and nutrient rich part of ocean can absorb more carbon dioxide than warmer parts. Therefore, polar regions generally serve as carbon sink.
  • Geological Carbon Sequestration
    • It is the process of storing carbon dioxide in underground geologic formations, or rocks.
    • Naturally, Carbonates are created over thousands of years when carbon dioxide dissolved in water and percolates in soil, combining with calcium and magnesium minerals, forming ‘caliche‘ in desert and arid soil.
    • Artificially, CO2 captured from industrial, or any other sources may be injected into porous rocks for long-term storage.
      • Hydrodynamic Trapping: It refers to a time-dependent hydrogeological process where injected CO2 is effectively trapped by the existence of very long travel times to the surface.
      • Solubility Trap: CO2 dissolved in liquid like water or oil.
      • Mineral Carbonation: CO2 can be made to react to naturally occurring minerals to form stable compound which can stay like that for years (e.g. Calcium carbonate)
  • Technological Carbon Sequestration
    • These are the new ways being explored by scientists to capture and store carbon using innovative technologies and to make useful products out of it.
    • Graphene Production
    • Direct Air Capture – Capturing carbon directly from air using advanced technology plants.
      • For now the technology is highly expensive and energy intensive. But with more advancement in technologies, this may become a viable option.
    • Engineered Molecules – These molecules can change shape by creating new kinds of compounds capable of singling out and capturing carbon dioxide from the air.

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1) CARBON SINK (GREEN AND BLUE CARBON)

• Green Carbon: It is the carbon which is stored by vegetation (forests, grasslands, etc.). It is basically biological carbon sequestration. Reforestation and Afforestation are mechanisms to enhance Green Carbon.
• Blue Carbon: Carbon stored by coastal, aquatic or marine ecosystems. These include mangroves, seagrasses etc.
  • Coastal ecosystems are more efficient carbon sinks when compared to tropical rain forests.

2) CARBON CREDIT AND CARBON OFFSETTING (ALREADY DISCUSSED WITH MARKET BASED MECHANISM)

2) CARBON PRICING INCLUDING CARBON TAX

• Carbon Pricing is a method which captures the external cost of green house emissions – i.e. the losses to different sectors like agriculture, health, property etc. due to addition of Greenhouse gas in atmosphere. There are two major types of Carbon Pricing – Emission Trading System (or Cap and Trade System) and Carbon Tax.
• Advantages of Carbon Pricing:
  • Shifts the cost on polluters -> internalize the external cost of pollution
• Carbon tax is a potential alternative to the ‘cap and trade‘ method currently used by the Kyoto protocol to reduce the carbon emission.
  • A carbon tax aims to internalize the externality of climate change by setting a price on the carbon content of energy consumed or greenhouse gas emitted in the production of consumption of goods.
• Advantages of carbon taxes over ‘Quantitative limits’ or ‘Cap and trade’ system
  1. Avoids the problem of choosing a baseline : In a price approach, the natural baseline is a zero carbon tax.
  2. Better adaptation to element of uncertainty which pervades the science of climate
     • Quantitative limits are related to the stocks of greenhouse gas emissions, while the price limits are related to the flow of emissions.
  3. Less volatility and more predictability : From uncertainty (point 2) arises volatility. Carbon tax regime is likely to cause less volatility in the prices of carbon emission
  4. Less administrative arbitrariness – easier implementation – lack of manipulation
     • Quantity limiting policies are often accompanied by administrative arbitrariness and corruption through rent seeking. This sends of wrong signals to investors.
     • In a price based system, the investors has an assured long-term regulation to adapt to and can weigh in the costs involved.
  5. Addresses the problem of equity
     • Equity is the most contentious issue in any international negotiation on climate change mitigation either at the level of WTO or UNFCC.
     • The price based approach in the form of carbon tax makes it easier to implement the equity based international adjustments than the quantity based approach.
  6. Carbon tax will essentially be a Pigovian tax which balances the marginal costs and benefits of additional emissions, thereby internalizing the cost of environmental damage.
  7. Better understandability: the carbon tax is simpler to understand and therefore may be braced by more people
• Limitations of Global Carbon Tax
  • No CBDR: It penalizes incremental carbon emissions rather than those who have already spewed into the atmosphere since the Industrial revolution.
  • Taxes are part of national social contracts that emerge out of very specific conditions that can’t necessarily be replicated on a global scale.
• Has India imposed any carbon tax yet?
  • A carbon tax increases the price that consumers pay for Increase in fuel taxes as well as quadrupling of the coal cess is sometimes interpreted as a variant of a carbon tax.
  • Similarly, not decreasing the petrol/diesel prices according to the decrease in crude oil prices can also be seen as a method of imposition of carbon tax.

3) GEO-ENGINEERING

•  Introduction:
  • Definition: Geo-engineering is a theoretical concept which aims to modify and cool environment to defeat the global warming. It may involve reduction of Sunlight reaching earth or absorption of CO2 to reduce global warming (Carbon Capture Technologies).
  • Since the global community is looking for a Net Zero target by 2050, the Geo-engineering technologies are expected to play a key role in this.
• Reduction of sunlight reaching Earth:
  1. Stratospheric Aerosol Injection: Injecting the atmosphere with Sulphur/ Hydrogen Sulphide (copies volcanic effect and scatters sunlight).
  2. Putting Large Mirrors in Space – reduce the amount of sunlight reaching earth.
  3. Using Wind-Powered Motors to whiten the cloud -> by spraying water into the sky -> reflect solar radiation.
• Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) (Or Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage (CCUS)) refers to technologies that can capture CO2, at a source of emissions before it is released into atmosphere.
  • The process starts with capture of CO2 which undergoes a compression process to from a dense fluid. This eases the transport and storage of the captured
  • This dense fluid is transported via pipelines and then injected into the underground storage facilities. It can also be used as a raw material in other industrial processes such as bicarbonates.
• CDR takes the form of both natural means like afforestation or reforestation, and technologies like direct air capture where machines mimic trees by absorbing CO2 from their surrounding and storing it underground.
  • E.g. Fake Trees containing compounds which can react with CO2 to absorb it and store it in solid from.
• Other Carbon Capture Technologies
  1. Ocean Iron Fertilization: Seeding the Sea with Iron
     • Phytoplankton prefer iron and flourish in its presence, thus absorbing a lot of CO2.
• How significant is the role of CCS and CDR in achieving net-zero by 2050?
  • In IPCC AR6, there is no pathway to 1.5 degrees C that doesn’t use CDR.
• Limitations/Problems with these CCS and Geoengineering method:
  • CCS and CDR are still technologies under development without demonstrated feasibility at large scale despite decades of development.
    • It also suffers from other challenges like high energy requirements; high cost; challenges in the transport and long-term storage of carbon.
  • CDR methods like afforestation, reforestation, Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) are constrained by their need of land. It may aso hamper food and water security.
  • Ocean Iron Fertilization: The Convention of Biological Diversity has already imposed a de facto moratorium based on precautionary principle. It could result in eutrophication, which may adversely affect the ocean ecosystem.
  • Stratospheric Aerosol Injection is also highly controversial as this could have unintended effects on global and regional climates.
  • Further, there are concerns related to fairness, equity, and justice in the adoption of geo- engineering technologies as most of the R&D is dominated by North American and Western Euro.
• So far, there has been very little progress on these technologies and most of the R&D is dominated by North American and Western European Nations. Emerging economies like China and India have also begun to look into these options more seriously.
  • CCS is absent from INDCs of most of the countries, indicating that most of the countries have not yet accepted it as promising technology.
• Why very little progress? – Lake of policy support and spending on R&D.

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 4) OCEAN CARBONDIOXIDE REMOVAL

• Introduction:
  • Ocean stores about 50 times more carbon than the atmosphere. So, for taking carbon out of atmosphere and storing it someplace where it won’t continue to warm the planet, the ocean is the single biggest place it can go.
  • Ocean Carbon dioxide Removal (Ocean CDR) uses the ocean’s natural ability to take up carbon on a large scale and amplifies it.
    • Carbon gets into ocean from atmosphere in two ways:
      1. Air dissolves in the ocean surface. Because sea water is slightly alkaline, the CO2 is absorbed into the ocean.
      2. The second involves biologic pump.
         • Ocean is a living medium and has algae, crustaceans, fish, whales etc. When organic material is eaten or dies, it gets recycled. It rains down through the ocean and makes its way to the ocean twilight zone, a level around 200 to 1,000 meters deep.
         • This twilight zone sustains the biological activities of the ocean. It is the soil of the ocean where organic carbon and nutrients accumulate and are recycled by microbes.
         • It is also home to the largest animal migration on the planet. Each day, trillions of fish and other organisms migrate from the depths to the surface to feed on the phytoplankton and one another and go back down, acting like a large carbon pump that captures carbon from the surface and shunts it down into the ocean where it is stored away from the atmosphere.
• Why is OCEAN CDR drawing so much attention right now?
  • Some experts feel that because of its volume and carbon storage potential, the ocean is really the only arrow in our quiver that has the ability to take up and store at the scale and urgency required.
  • A 2022 report by the national academies outlined a research strategy for ocean carbon dioxide removal. The three most promising methods highlighted are:
    • Ocean Alkalinity enhancement: Oceans are naturally alkaline, with a pH of about 1. Increasing alkalinity by dissolving certain powder rocks and minerals makes the ocean a chemical sponge for atmospheric CO2.
    • Add micro-nutrients to ocean surface, particularly soluble iron.
      • Very small amount of soluble iron can stimulate great productivity (algal growth), which drives a more vigorous biological pump.
      • Over a dozen of these experiments have been done, so the scientists know that it works.
    • Grow Kelp in the Ocean: It captures carbon at the surface through photosynthesis, then bale it and sink it to the deep ocean.
    • But, all these methods have drawbacks for large scale use, including cost and unanticipated consequences.

2. EFFORTS BY AVIATION AND SHIPPING SECTOR

 1) ICAO – CORSIA

• Introduction
  • The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is a specialized agency of UN which deals with administration and governance of the Convention on International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention).
  • It was established in 1944 and is headquartered at Montreal Canada.
  • It works with 192 Member states of convention and other industry groups to come to a consensus on International Civil Aviation Standards and Recommendation Practices (SARPs) and Policies to ensure safe, efficient, secure, economically sustainable and environmentally responsible civil aviation.
  • It also assists member states in capacity building towards various aviation development objectives.
• Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA)
  • In 2016, ICAO finally (after years of negotiations) sealed the first deal for limiting green-house gases from international aviation. The decision was taken during 39th ICAO general assembly meeting attended by 191 countries.
  • Details of the Offsetting Scheme: From 2021, any increase in airline CO2 emission will be offset by activities like tree planting, which soak up CO2.
    • CO2 will be allowed to grow to 2020 but after that, emissions will need to be offset.
    • Three Phases:
      • Pilot Phase: 2021-2023 (Voluntary)
      • First Phase: 2024-2026 (Voluntary)
      • Second Phase: 2027-2035 (Mandatory for all member states)
    • The deal will be voluntary till 2026 but most major nations are expected to take part.
    • Review period every three years and it rules out “double counting” of offsets to ensure that forest protection efforts elsewhere aren’t used to negate aircraft emissions.
  • Applicable to Civilian passenger and cargo flights.
  • Exceptions: Humanitarian, Medical, Firefighting flights etc.
• Developing countries like India, China, Brazil etc had opposed the Why? ?
• CORSIA is part of the effort from ICAO to halve the carbon emissions by 2050 compared to 2005 levels.
  • Other efforts include adoption of new technology – including deployment of sustainable alternative fuels, more efficient aircraft operations, infrastructure improvements including modernized air-traffic management systems.

• DGCA Guidelines to airlines operators (Oct 2018)
  • Under these guidelines, all operators engaged in international operations have to capture their fuel consumptions and carbon emissions data annually, starting from Jan 1, 2019.
  • Further, beginning 2021, the operators will have to meet offsetting requirements by purchasing and cancelling “emission units”.

2) INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION (IMO) REACHES A DEAL TO CUT EMISSIONS

• Key Highlights of the deal:
  • More than 170 countries under the aegis of IMO have agreed to a target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from shipping by at least 50% of 2008 levels by 2050. This is being called as “initial strategy“.
  • The strategy also proposes to reduce carbon intensity from shipping – the amount of CO2 emitted from each unit of transport – by at least 40% by 2030, and 70% by 2050.
  • The final IMO Plan is not expected by 2023.
  • Some possible medium term measures discussed include:
    1. Low carbon and zero carbon fuels
    2. Improved energy efficiency of new and existing ships
    3. Possible market based mechanism to encourage shift to lower carbon fules.
• Analysis
  • Experts feel that IMO should and could have gone much further in their contribution. Opposition from some countries especially USA, Saudi Arabia and Panama had limited what could be achieved at the IMO session.
    1. To align with Paris goals, the reduction target should be 70-100%.
  • Developing countries like India are worried that a target to reduce emission from shipping sector will negatively hamper their yet to fully develop sector.
• Note: Shipping and Aviation sector avoided specific emission-cutting targets in a global climate pact agreed in Paris in 2015.

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3. EFFORTS BY INDIA TO FIGHT CLIMATE CHANGE

 1) NATIONAL ACTION PLAN ON CLIMATE CHANGE (NAPCC)

• Introduction
  • Challenges emerging from climate change are complex and multi-sectoral, and therefore these have to be dealt with a multi-dimensional approach.
  • Keeping this in mind, GoI in 2008, adopted NAPCC which is aimed at promoting development objectives and at the same time tackling climate change effectively.
  • There are 8 missions which form the core of NAPCC. These missions represent the multipronged and integrated approach required to deal with climate change.
• How NAPCC was supposed to deal with Climate Change
  • Development and use of new technologies.
  • Involving multiple ministries which will focus on different mission objectives.
  • Involving private sector through PPP projects and civil society actions.
  • Promoting awareness about climate change, adaptation, energy efficiency etc.
• Understanding Achievements and Limitations of Individual Missions
  1. National Solar Mission is aimed at increasing the solar energy capacity in the country and thus reducing the emission of GHGs.
     • Governed by Ministry of New and Renewable energy.
     • The target of JNNSM was enhanced to 100 GW by 2022 which includes 60 GW through large and medium scale grid connected solar power projects and 40 GW through rooftop solar.
  2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) is aimed at improving energy efficiency and thus meeting energy demands of the country.
     • Ministry: Ministry of Power
     • The mission commenced in 2010 with a target to achieve the following:
       • GHG reduction of 55 million tonnes/ year at full implementation stage.
       • Annual fuel savings of 23 million tons.
  3. National Mission for Sustainable Habitat
     • Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
     • The mission commenced in 2010 with an aim to reduce emission in
     • It focuses on GHG reduction opportunities by increasing energy efficiency of the building, improving municipal solid waste management, and encouraging people to use public transport.
       • Some specific initiatives to achieve these objectives are Adaptation of the existing Energy Conservation Building Code and promoting investments in development of high capacity public transport system.
  4. National Water Mission
     • Ministry of Jal Shakti.
     • The mission commenced in 2011 with an aim to ensure water security and improve access to water resources. It aims to achieve this by promoting water conservation and water use efficiency.
     • It covers the entire sweep of water management to fight climate change impacts: from water conservation to water use efficiency.
  5. National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystem
     • Governed by Department of Science and Technology
     • Commencement in 2011
     • Aimed at developing capacity to assess the health status of Himalayan Ecosystem and helping Himalayan states in policy formulation and implementation.
  6. The National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change
     • Governed by Department of Science and Technology
     • Commencement in 2014
     • Aimed at establishment of knowledge network among the existing knowledge institutions engaged in R&D related to climate change.
     • The two missions (NMSHE and NMSKCC) operated under DST and aims to generate new information, building scientific and technical capacity, and produce new channel of collaboration between scientists, policy makers and law makers to ensure that climate action is based on sound knowledge and science.
  7. National Mission for Green India
     • MoEF&CC
     • Commencement: 2014
     • Aims: To increase forest and tree cover.
       • Under this the focus is on reviving degraded forests with a focus on increasing forest cover & density and conserving biodiversity.
  8. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
     • Commenced in 2012 with aim to climate-proof agriculture and reduce emission from the sector.
     • There are four components under NMSA
       1. Soil Health Management aims at nutrient management through judicious use of chemical fertilizers for improving soil health and productivity.
       2. Rainfed Area Development to develop or bring agri-land under integrated farming system.
       3. Sub-Mission on agro-forestry to promote plantation along with crops.
       4. Climate Change and Sustainable Agriculture: Monitoring Modeling and Networking (CCSAMMN) for creating models on adaptation and dissemination of information about climate change.

 3) MISSION LIFE

• Why in news?
  • PM Modi launched Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment), in the presence of UN Secretary General Antonio Guterres (Oct 2022)
• Details about Mission LiFE
  • It was first proposed by PM Modi at COP 26 of UNFCCC in Nov 2021. It is envisioned as an India led global mass movement that will nudge individual and collective action to protect and preserve the environment.
    • PM Modi has underlined that Mission LiFE makes the fight against climate change democratic, in which everyone can contribute with their respective capacities.
    • It emboldens the spirit of the P3 Model: Pro Planet People.
    • It functions on the basic principles of ‘Lifestyle of the planet, for the planet and by the planet‘.
  • At the launch, PM Modi also highlighted that the concept of ‘Reduce, Reuse and Recycle’ and circular economy; and mentioned that it has been part of the Indian Lifestyle for thousands of years.
  • LiFE also resonates with climate justice -> it highlights enhanced obligations for those in developed countries and supports climate adaptation and mitigation for those most affected and yet least responsible.
• NITI Aayog and MoEF&CC, in collaboration with Government of Gujarat, organized the global launch of Mission Life.
  • NITI aayog will curate and incubate Mission Life in the first year, and it will subsequently be implemented by MoEF&CC.
  • It is a five year program.
• Significance:
  • According to UNEP, more than 2/3rd of the GHG emissions can be attributed to household consumption and lifestyles -> therefore the urgent cuts to global emissions we need can only be achieved through widespread adoption of greener consumption habits.
  • Life recognizes that small individual actions can tip the balance in the planet’s favor.
    • Actions such as saving energy at home; cycling and using public transport instead of driving; eating more plant-based foods and wasting less; and leveraging our position as customers and employees to demand climate-based friendly choices.
  • Many of the goals of LiFE can be achieved by deploying ‘nudges’, gentle persuasion technique to encourage positive Behaviour.
    • The UNEP employs proven nudging techniques:
      • Discouraging Food waste by offering smaller plates in cafeterias;
      • encouraging recycling by making bin lids eye-catching;
      • and encouraging cycling by creating cycle paths
• Note: Other Recent global initiatives launched/initiated by India:
  • Panchamrita Targets announced by Mr Modi at COP26
  • International Solar Alliance
  • The Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure

 4) GREEN BONDS: MOBILIZING FUNDS

• Though the Paris Agreement provides for mobilization of resources from developed countries, the process has been very slow.
• Thus, India has scaled up its efforts towards greater mobilization of private capital to meet its ambitious climate action goals.
• Green Bonds   are   financial   instruments   that   generate   proceeds   for   investment in environmentally sustainable and climate suitable projects.
  • Developed countries such as UK, France, Germany etc have been using Green bonds to raise billions of dollars of sovereign green debts.
• In India, as per SEBI’s data between 2017 and Sep 2022, 15 Indian corporates have issued green bonds of value of Rs 4,539 crores. Most of this is related to renewable energy generation.
• Union Budget 2022-23 announced the issuance of Sovereign Green Bonds.
  • The final sovereign Green bond framework of India has been
  • The Green Financing working committee has also been set up to oversee and validate key decisions on the issuance of Sovereign green bonds.
    • The committee has the mandate to select the projects for allocation of proceeds, do a time-bound review of the allocation and carry out annual reporting along with an impact assessment of the proceeds from sovereign green bonds issued

A) REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR ISSUANCE OF GREEN DEBT SECURITIES

• Reserve Bank of India:
  • In Nov 2021, the RBI published its ‘Statement of Commitment to Support Greening India’s Financial System’ – NGFS. Here, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) laid out, keeping in view its national commitments, priorities, and complexity of our financial system, committed to, among others, exploring how climate scenario exercises can be used to identify vulnerabilities in RBI-supervised entities’ balance sheets, business models and gaps in their capabilities for measuring and managing climate-related financial risks.
  • Also, in 2007, the RB advised banks to put in place an appropriate action plan for making a meaningful contribution to sustainable development.
    • Over time, RBI has incentivised bank lending towards greener industries and
      • For example, renewable energy projects have been included under Priority Sector Lending (PSL).

B) SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE BOARD OF INDIA (SEBI)

• • SEBI introduced the regulatory framework for issuance of green debt securities as a mode of sustainable finance under the erstwhile SEBI (Issue and Listing of Debt Securities) Regulations, 2008, (ILDS Regulations), in 2017.
  • At the time of review of the ILDS Regulations, the provisions of the erstwhile circular were subsumed, and the definition of “green debt security” was incorporated as Regulation 2(1)(q) in the SEBI (Issue and Listing of Non-Convertible Securities) Regulations, 2021 (‘NCS Regulations’). The disclosure requirements were prescribed vide Operational Circular dated August 10, 2021.
  • In Nov 2022, SEBI has allowed an issuer under the SEBI (Issue and Listing of Municipal Debt Securities) Regulations, 2015 (‘ILMDS Regulations’) to issue a green debt security if it falls within the definition of “green debt security” as per Regulation 2(1)(q) of the NCS Such an issuer has to comply with both ILMDS Regulation and NCS Regulation
• In the backdrop of increasing interest in sustainable finance in India as well as around the globe, and with a view to aligning the extant framework for green debt securities with the updated Green Bond Principles recognised by International Organisation of Securities Commission (IOSCO), SEBI undertook a review of the regulatory framework for green debt securitie Based on the review, it has been decided in the SEBI board meeting dated December 20, 2022, to:
  • Enhance the scope of the definition of green debt security by including new modes of sustainable finance in relation to pollution prevention and control, eco-efficient products, etc.;
  • Introduce the concept of blue bonds (related to water management and marine sector), yellow bonds (related to solar energy) and transition bonds as subcategories of green debt securities.

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4. DESERTIFICATION AND LAND DEGRADATION

• Introduction
  • Desertification is a type of land degradation in which relatively dry land region becomes increasingly arid, typically losing its bodies of water as well as vegetation and wildlife.
  • Currently, 41% of the landmass worldwide is prone to desertification and more than 2 billion people are affected by desertification and land degradation.
• Key causes
  1. Deforestation
  2. Overgrazing and unsustainable agri practices are other major factors leading to
  3. Increasing Pollution also negatively hampers biodiversity (including biodiversity), causes infertility of soil and promotes desertification
  4. Climate Change and higher probability of droughts have made more areas vulnerable to desertification
  5. Salination caused by overuse of water, degrades soil and promotes
  6. Unsustainable Mining practices also degrades the geographic region and promotes
  7. Invasive species of plants such as Proposis Juliflora have also resulted in the decline of natural vegetation and expansion of deserts.
     • This can be specifically seen in case of Banni Grassland, of Kutch Gujarat.
  8. Forest fires are the other major drivers of
  9. Lack of Resources to fight desertification
     • The issue was also raised recently in the 14th COP on Only $6.4 billion have been spent in last 2 years to combat desertification, the real cost should be as much as $450 billion annually.
• Impact
  1. Threatens socio-economic development by threatening food security, increasing poverty and unemployment due to land degradation.
  2. Increases vulnerability of already vulnerable groups
  3. Promotes the vicious cycle of degradation
     • Poverty force people to go for unsustainable agri practices, further promoting desertification.
  4. Desertification adds to and worsens the impact of climate change
     • It reduces forest cover and thus reduces the sinks for CO2.

1) UNITED NATION CONVENTION ON COMBATING DESERTIFICATION (UNCCD)

• UNCCD is one of three important conventions finalized in 1992 Earth Summit (the other being CBD and UNFCCC)
• It was established in 1994 and is the sole legally binding international agreement linking environment and development to sustainable land management.
  • The convention addresses specifically the arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas, known as drylands, where some of the most vulnerable ecosystems and peoples can be found.
• The convention has 197 members who work together to:
  • Improve the living condition of people in drylands
  • Maintain and restore soil productivity
  • Mitigate the effect of drought

2) THE NEW UNCCD 2018-30 STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK

• It is the most comprehensive global commitment to achieve Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) to achieve a land degradation-neutral world consistent with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
• Land Degradation Neutrality
  • A state whereby the amount and quality of land resources, necessary to support ecosystem functions and services and enhance food security, remains stable or increases within specified temporal and spatial scales and ecosystems.
• The LDN Target Setting Program
  • Through this, the Global Mechanism (GM) and Secretariat on UNCCD, in collaboration with multiple international partners, are supporting interested countries in their national LDN target setting process.
• The LDN Fund
  • It is an impact investment fund, blending resources from the public, private and philanthropic sectors to support achieving LDN through sustainable land management and land restoration projects implemented in private sector.
    • It is the first of its kind investment vehicle leveraging public money to raise private capital for sustainable land projects.
  • It was officially launched at COP 13 in Ordos, China.

3)  WORLD DAY TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION AND DROUGHT: 17^TH JUNE

• Backgrond
  • In 1994, General Assembly established the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), the sole legally binding international agreement linking environment and development to sustainable land management, and declared 17th June “World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought”.
  • Later, in 2007, UNGA declared the decade 2010- 2020 as the UN Decade for Deserts and Find Against Desertification to mobilize global action to fight land degradation.
• The 2021 Desertification and Drought day focused on turning degraded land into healthy land.

4) THE BONN CHALLENGE

• It is a global goal to bring 150 million hectares of degraded and deforested landscapes into restoration by 2020 and 350 million hectares by 2030.

5) GREAT GREEN WALL INITIATIVE

• This initiative was launched in 2007 by African Union and is aimed at restoring Africa’s degraded landscapes and transform millions of lives in one of the world’s poorest regions, the Sahel.
• It will be covering the Sahel region, from Senegal in the west to Djibouti in the East of Africa.
• Once, complete the wall will be the largest living structure on the planet – an 8,000 km natural wonder of the world stretching across the entire width of the continent.
• The initiative has brought together African Countries and International Partners, under the leadership of African Union Commission and Pan-African Agency of the Great Green Wall.
• Objectives:
  • By 2030, restore 100 million ha of currently degraded land; sequester 250 million tons of carbon; and create 10 million green jobs.

6) UN HIGH LEVEL DIALOGUE ON DESERTIFICATION, LAND DEGRADATION, AND DROUGHT

• Why in news?
  • PM Modi gave a keynote address at the UN ‘High-Level Dialogue on Desertification, Land Degradation and Drought’ (June 2021)
• Details
  • The President of General Assembly convened a High-Level Dialogue to assess the progress made in the fight against DLDD during the UN Decade for Deserts and the Fight Against Desertification (2011-2020) and map the way forward. This dialogue took place in May 2021.
• Key Purpose
  • Bring attention to how COVID-19 recovery process can be aligned to address DLDD through job creation project in land restoration, regenerative agriculture, renewable energy and energy efficiency, and investments in sustainable land management.
  • Elevate the discourse on DLDD issues’ global significance for the entire SDG agenda and for climate, biodiversity and disaster risk reduction.
  • Build upon the commitments made by member states during CBD summit, UNFCCC summit and so on.
  • Encourage all UN members to adopt and implement Land degradation Neutrality targets and National Drought Plans as part of their NDCs to Paris Agreement.
  • Call member countries to support the Land Degradation Neutrality Fund and other funding mechanisms to scale up land restoration by all sectors of society
  • Share experiences, best practices, cutting edge technologies and innovative business models that advance green, resilient and inclusive recovery strategy.
• Key Highlights of PM Modi’s Address
  • In India, we have always given importance to land and considered the sacred Earth as our mother.
  • Key steps by India:
    • Afforestation: Over last 10 years, India has added 3 million hectares of forest cover.
    • India is on track to achieve our national commitment of Land Degradation Neutrality [SDG target 15.3].
    • India is also working towards restoring 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030.
      • This would also contribute to India’s NDC commitment of an additional 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent.
    • In the spirit of south-south cooperation, India is also helping fellow developing countries to develop land restoration strategies.
    • A centre of excellence is being set up in India to promote scientific approach towards land degradation strategy.
  • Restoration of land can start the virtuous cycle of good soil health, increased land productivity, food security and improved livelihood.

 7) DESERTIFICATION AND LAND DEGRADATION ATLAS OF INDIA

• It has been published by Space Application Centre, ISRO Ahmedabad (June 2021)
• The Atlas provides state wise area of degraded lands for the time frame 2018-19. It also provides change analysis for the duration of 15 years, from 2003-05 to 2018-19.
• Key Highlights
  • 29.7% of India’s land is degraded.
    • i.e. 97.8 million hectares of India’s total geographical area (TGA) of 328.72 mha underwent land degradation.
  • Area under desertification have also increased to 69 million hectares in 2018-19 from 82.64 mha in 2011-13.
    • Note: Land degradation within dry land regions (arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid regions) is termed as desertification.
  • Statewise breakup
    • Increase in level of desertification have been seen in 28 out of 31 states and UTs between 2011-13 and 2018-19.
      • Even in Goa and Odisha where desertification had earlier declined (between 2003-05 and 2011-13), it has increased now.
    • Land degradation and desertification was declining in UP, Rajasthan and Telangana in 2018-19.

Around 23.79% of the area undergoing desertification with respect to the TGA of the country was contributed by Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Ladakh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, and Telangana.